Comparing Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparing Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau - Essay Example One of the key problems involved in the debate on justification of political authority is the balance between limitations imposed by any political authority and individual freedom. On the one hand, freedom is exceptionally important to the life of a person in many senses. On the other hand, an individual can not be allowed to act solely at his or her will: there must be certain rules for behavior. Establishing this balance between individual freedom and interests of the community is the key task of any state and government which acts like a stabilizer. In case this balance is in place, the highest level of individual freedom is achieved while the risk of falling into total anarchy is avoided (Popper, 1985). According to Thomas Hobbes, in prehistoric uncivilized times before any sort of government emerged, there was constant war with â€Å"every man, against every man† (Hobbes, 1668, p.12). Consequently, Hobbesian justification of authority logically followed from the total brutality of human beings in their natural state characterized by intolerance: submission to authority was the only way to eliminate the brutality and intolerance of the State of Nature (Hobbes, 1668). By contrast, John Locke believed that the original state of man was not as hostile as Hobbes thought. In Locke’s opinion happiness, reason and tolerance were the core characteristics of the natural man, and all humans, in their original state, were equal and absolutely free to pursue things, considered as indisputable rights, namely â€Å"†¦life, health, liberty and possessions† (Locke, 1990, par. 6). However, Locke’s State of Nature is not chaotic with every individual pursuing its own egoistic goals. Despite absence of any authority or government with the power to punish the subjects for wrong actions, Locke believed that the State of Nature was effectively regulated by morality. Since all human beings in the

Comparison of Free Market Economy and Mixed Economy Systems Essay

Comparison of Free Market Economy and Mixed Economy Systems - Essay Example This can ensure that qualified medical care practitioners and welfare personnel receive prior training before employment. This ensures that the low earning bracket can access a minimal, equal level of up-to-standard medical care and treatment just like the high-income society members (Anderton, 2008). However, some officials may embezzle government funds while taking advantage of the welfare program. Medical practitioners may see an investment in their course of private practice. Some individuals may want a higher level of medical care than is available from the governing body and may lack freedom to choose. In some industries, the corporate sector experiences increased regulation resulting to decreased corporate greed. An adverse instance would be the Enron case that caused numerous workers to leave without proper retirement packages. This corporation, which the government controls, would control this greed, thus shielding the rights of people (Anderton, 2008). The modes of retireme nt in an entity that operates in a free market would yield promising returns for employee investments.. A corrupt administration can cut down retirement benefits into reserves of few. When entities facilitate businesses in a fixed economy, individual relationships may favor and push someone ahead when they cannot trace other methods. This holds a downside in business ethics in most mixed economy markets. USA citizens would find this issue debatable. Methods such as guanxi to fortify business initiatives, or business processes can result into bribery or corruption. A free market economy functions via voluntary exchange without control from a capitalist monetary system. A free market economy has numerous benefits to clients and businesses. Most demerits of... This essay is one of the best examples of comparison of the distinctive characteristics of free market economy and mixed economy types of system. In a mixed economy, the privatized businesses and the government share the control of monetary systems. A mixed economy market confers various advantages. In presentation of the fundamental advantages, it is pertinent to address every merit with a demerit to acquire a clear perspective of the differences between a free economy market and a mixed economy market. Foremost, the control level that the ruling government holds within a mixed monetary system causes it to hold a chief role in service delivery. The private domain has a responsibility to aid in building infrastructure and offer services. This may elicit an increase in efficiency. Owing to this, a problem would come up if the government refutes to ascertain the type of infrastructure it requires from the private entities. Production may fail to keep on track with demand and supply of the population and create a surplus, or scarcity of merchandise and services, contributing to loss of profits A free market economy functions via voluntary exchange without control from a capitalist monetary system. A free market economy has numerous benefits to clients and businesses. Most demerits of any economy lie within the issues of microeconomics, namely employment, laws, and wages. In current times, unemployment is a rampant factor that causes companies to commute overseas to nations like China.

Corporate Social Responsibility in International companies

Corporate Social Responsibility in International companies Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is an aspect of business ethics that has assumed significant importance in the age of globalization and expanding markets. The morally-influenced attitudes of consumers in markets have forced many multinational corporations to redefine their definition of social values and rules of their business. There is an increasing realization that corporations are created by the society and that they must give back by serving the society and not merely by making profit from it. New age corporate leaders are replacing the business philosophy of maximization of profits with optimization of profits by shifting their business focus from accountability to shareholders to accountability to stakeholders (including employees, customers, communities, etc.). The growing focus on Corporate Social Responsibility mandates that these stakeholders have a right to expect accountability and transparency as well as social and environmental investment from corporations Ignoring Corporate Social Responsibility would mean endangering business success in the global marketplace. It is unlikely that a company can be ethical while not manifesting a high degree of social and environmental responsibility. Corporate Social Responsibility and responsibility to the environment are themselves large and important issues for any company today. Corporate Social Responsibility and Shared Value Corporate Social responsibility as a concept and a part of the business model started evolving from 1960s and in the Indian context companies like TCS have been using their core competency to the benefit of communities. But as more and more businesses start paying lip service to CSR a need for a new model which would broaden their view was much needed. In an article by Michael E. Porter and Mark R. Kramer in the Harvard Business Review titled The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value, the authors comment on how companies are widely being perceived to be prospering at the expense of the broader community. They go on to say the more business has begun to embrace corporate responsibility, the more it has been blamed for societys failures. Business is caught in a vicious circle. Companies no longer have a broader view when it comes to value creation as they are focused more on short term profit gains. They have started ignoring the aspects which make them sustainable in the long term. Important issues like customer well being, conservation of natural resources and community well being are being overlooked which is leading to a negative perception in the minds of people. According to the authors of the article The solution to this problem lies in the principle of shared value, which involves creating economic value in a way that also creates value for society by addressing its needs and challenges. Businesses must reconnect company success with social progress. Shared value is not social responsibility, philanthropy, or even sustainability, but a new way to achieve economic success. It is not on the margin of what companies do but at the center. We believe that it can give rise to the next major transformation of business thinking CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY NATIONAL COMPANIES ITC ITC is well known for its CSR initiatives in India. Its e-Choupal program which was conceived by its agri-business division has helped farmers to come out of the vicious cycle of debt and risk and low productivity. It was launched in June 2000 and some of the achievements of this program are: Reach out to over 4 million farmers in over 40,000 villages across 10 states through 6500 kiosks. Choupal Pradarshan khet an initiative which provides Agri-extension services which provide the knowledge of the best agricultural practices to small and marginal farmers. This initiative covers over 70,000 hectares and 1.6 million farmers Watershed development schemes which cover 56,951 hectares which are brought under soil and moisture conservation. Primary education services to 252,329 children through 2,334 Supplementary Learning Centres. Their social and farm forestry efforts have brought 19,100 hectares of wasteland under social forestry helping more than 20,000 households across 525 villages. ITC also indirectly followed the shared value business as they linked their paperboards businesss wood fibre needs to the farmers need for income from their produce of the same. ITC claims it is taking conscious steps towards moving away from their Cigarette business and earning more revenues from their other business as many people were skeptical about ITCs CSR activities as they produce cigarettes and that is a major source of their revenues. Infosys Technologies Limited Infosys employees actively participate in the welfare of the local community. Their Development Centers in India make a difference through several Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Their employees organize and contribute to welfare programs, especially for underprivileged children. Infosys has pledged to make a difference to society by actively participating in community development. Their social contract inspires more than 100,000 employees to contribute to community welfare, environment sustainability and digital literacy. In 2009-10, Infosys organized several programs, enabling employees to give back to society: Volunteering:- A sabbatical policy encourages Infoscions to work for designated Indian Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) on community projects. Employees are paid an allowance by the company for up to a year. Infoscions actively support the mid-day meal program of the Akshaya Patra Foundation. It is the worlds largest NGO school meal program blending nutrition with education for more than one million children in rural areas across seven states in India, daily. Emergency aid:- In 2009, floods in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka caused widespread destruction of life and property. The Infosys Foundation and Infoscions donated 30 crore towards rehabilitation and reconstruction of homes. In 2010, Infosys Australia organized a fund-raiser to support Red Cross disaster relief efforts in the wake of earthquakes in Haiti and Chile. Infosys USA worked with Red Cross to provide Haitians with food and medical care. Digital empowerment:- Infosys initiates children into Information Technology at a young age through the SPARK program. In 2009-10, Infoscions touched the lives of more than 70,000 students across India by undertaking IT training and mentoring teachers of government-aided schools in rural areas. Shaping policies:- Members of the board of directors of Infosys serve on global councils and contribute to policy making in corporate governance, education, healthcare, diversity, and the environment. Infosys is partnering with state utilities in India to introduce voluntary green tariff, enabling consumers to offset the cost of renewable energy. Infosys hosted the Climate Roadmap Sub-National Workshop at Mysore, a platform to share best practices in environment sustainability. Promoting education and research:- Infosys is working with more than 400 engineering colleges in India to enhance their curriculum and enrich the talent pool through the Campus Connect program. The Infosys Science Foundation promotes research in pure and applied sciences with an annual prize of 50 lakh for Indian researchers. Tata Consultancy Services TCS has always recognized the responsibility Corporates should have towards the wider communities they operate in. Be it girl child education in South Asia in collaboration with UNICEF or adult literacy programs in South India, TCS believes in using IT as an instrument for social development and change. Other TCS community initiatives have been in areas addressing environmental and civic problems; setting up and maintaining infrastructure for urban beautification, pollution reduction and healthcare; waste management in the office environment, tree plantation and water treatment. Environment policy:- TCS provides a healthy work environment to all its employees, and conducts environment friendly business at all its offices. To achieve these goals, TCS has published this Environment Policy. In line with its continuous improvement process initiative, TCS will continuously enhance its environment policy, which encompasses air, water, natural resources, people and their interrelation. Employees:- TCS makes all its employees aware on how work practices affect the environment. For example, wasteful use of electricity or paper at work place depletes natural resources and adds to pollution caused by the generating/manufacturing units. Similarly safe work practices protect the environment by mitigating health risks and accidents. As members of the TATA family, and responsible citizens of the country, TCS employees should observe environment- friendly behaviour, both in and outside the work place. Management:- TCS management defines health, safety and environment goals and objectives, identifies roles and responsibilities for policy implementation, measures performance, and allocates necessary resources. It integrates resource planning with health, safety and environment concerns. Two-way communication is established with employees, clients and vendors to promote and share health, safety and environment initiatives. The Management will also initiate ISO 14001 certification for different locations in a phased manner. Work Place:- TCS managers review the work environment and suggest improvements in line with this policy. The policy initiates energy conservation, waste recycling, and paper reduction, in priority areas. The measures and initiatives emerging as a result of this policy get documented as processes. These processes ensure compliance with applicable health, safety, and environment regulations in all offices of TCS. WIPRO Apart from being Indias leading IT service company, Wipro has made a mark through their CSR activities. Making education a mission At Wipro, the commitment to education is driven by a mission to impart knowledge that helps the young develop holistic skills to address social, economic and environmental issues. Wipro perceives education as a fundamental enabler of sustainable social change. In this context, Wipro has undertaken educational initiatives that cover school reform and the curriculum. These include: Wipro Applying Thought in Schools Focused, long-term initiative in school reform Initiative based on the thought that every child must be given the opportunity to realize his/her potential Worked with over 10,500 educators in 1500 schools across 17 states in India Partnered over 30 social organizations in this endeavor Mission 10X A platform for the rapidly growing academic community of educators, learners and innovators Helps them impart education that enhances the employability skills of fresh engineering graduates in India Reached the first milestone and has empowered more than 10,000 faculty members across 20 states Azim Premji Foundation This is a not-for-profit organization with a vision to contribute to systemic changes in Indian education that facilitates a just, equitable, humane and sustainable society. Operational since 2001, the Foundation has engaged with over 2.5 million children in 20,000 schools across 13 States through a committed workforce of over 250 professionals and hundreds of paid volunteers. Eco Eye Wipros commitment to the ecology around is as strong as their every endeavour. Their believe is that the future lies in sustainable solutions that will never interfere with our environment, an integral part of our social initiatives. With the formation of Eco Eye, Wipro is now a business that incorporates better ecological balance in every project we execute. Dabur Dabur defines CSR as conducting business in ways that provide social, environmental economic benefits for the communities and geographies where it operates. The greatest value is in making a difference in lives of people. Daburs CSR initiatives are driven by Sustainable Development Society or SUNDESH, which aims to reach out to the weaker and more vulnerable sections of society. SUNDESH operates in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand addressing childrens literacy, improving healthcare services, skill development, and environment Healthcare: Providing diagnostic facilities like urine and pregnancy test, haemoglobin, blood sugar and Doppler test to the poor rural populace at nominal rates. Reducing infant and maternal mortality rates by promoting and motivating expecting mothers to go in for institutional deliveries. Holding eye care camps at its Health Post and in villages. Organizing workshops on prevention of female foeticide and sensitization to make the community aware about the importance of girl child and improve the girl-boy ratio in the region. An awareness drive on HIV/AIDS was undertaken with CARE India Trust and UP State AIDS Control Society to reduce Sexually Transmitted Infections/HIV transmission among high-risk migrants Education Literacy: The educational initiatives of SUNDESH for underprivileged children include non- formal education [6-14 years non-school going], special school for working children [8-13 years], remedial education [6-14 years school-going], besides holding classes for women. SUNDESH holds classes for underprivileged children between 6 and 14 years of age. After completing their basic education, these children, who have never had a chance to see a school from inside or are school dropouts, are then encouraged to get enrolled in formal schools. Income Generation Programmes: Capability enhancement programmes have been introduced offering vocational training in cutting tailoring, machine hand embroidery, bee keeping, mushroom farming, mehandi application and vermi-composting. Dabur has started the project on medicinal plants in Nepal to provide the modern technology for cultivation of the required medicinal herbs of Himalayas to the farmers. AIRCEL The pursuit of CSR can take some very strange turns as demonstrated by the Aircel campaign to save the tiger. Aircel is one of the biggest mobile phone providers in India.  In 2010, they launched the Save our Tiger campaign represented by a tiger cub called Stripey with whom the country promptly fell in love with. Prime time TV could barely be watched without Stripey and his Im abandoned, please save me eyes. Now abruptly, he has disappeared and taken his much talked about cuteness with him. Every TV-watching, net-savvy person in India now knows that only 1411 tigers exist in the wild. We know the company has tied up with WWF to give it some credibility. Some of us wonder if this is an attempt at a badly executed CSR effort. What seems specifically unclear to me remains the ultimate aim of the campaign. Was it started to: (a) create awareness? or (b) create the impression of corporate responsibility? or (c) give people the impression that Aircel is going to take a lead in saving the tiger?  Since Project Tiger,  which has been the most successful program in the 70s lost steam; tiger conservation in India has always had its lulls and rises. There has never been a concentrated effort to increase numbers by putting a check on poaching and habitat destruction. More importantly there has not been much transparency, advocacy or public involvement in the process. Every census releases varying numbers regarding tiger population does Aircel explain how the number 1411 was arrived at? Aircels attempt at gathering public sympathy for the fate of Indias national animal is admirable. The campaign regardless of whether it is CSR or not, is not strategically clever. It does really explain what the company itself is doing to save the tiger apart from throwing Stripey on the airwaves. The campaign would have infinitely more credibility if they could explain  why  it is really, truly important to save the tiger along with its habitat. Most unfortunately, the company does not galvanize on the campaign to further its image of CSR. The entire campaign looks like one quick brainstorm session resulting in the words tiger and save put together, how to publicize the issue with as much noise as possible and then abruptly stop. Conservation efforts are dependent on rate of biodiversity loss which is tied into economic losses. Stripey no matter how cute and how much celebrity support he garners, will not stir public sympathies for too long unless a holistic picture is provided. I hope someone from Aircel is reading this: more information is needed on their campaign objectives, overall picture of CSR   activities, how they plan on achieving these and where theyre getting their tiger numbers from for starters. Hindustan Latex Limited Hindustan Latex Limited, a public sector company established more than three decades ago, came to occupy a premier position in the countrys family planning and health care programs. Hindustan Latex Limited ventured into social sector projects aimed at creating a planned social change. It was with this objective that HLL formed the Hindustan Latex Family Planning Promotion Trust, a non-profit organization promoted by HLL, undertaking the conceptualization and implementation of various Social Sector Projects and broad based to focus on reproductive and sexual health. Distribution of social marketing brands of contraceptives through unemployed, educated and mobile rural youth, supported by a comprehensive local media based IEC programme, thereby contributing to the reduction of Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in the rural areas and Advancement of family health through the promotion of sanitary napkins and oral rehydration salts (ORS). Community based distribution of   Contraceptives project Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa , Sukha Parivaram is a social marketing programme for the state of Andhra Pradesh and will make available a basket of social marketing goods such as condoms, oral contraceptive pills, iron and folic acid tablets (for pregnant women) and ORS. Mobile Health Clinic Project to ensure that the health services are able to reach the remote, inaccessible and underserved areas. In combination with reduced education levels this innovative approach will help to take the health infrastructure at the nearest village of the rural populace specially in those villages which are currently not served by any PHC and private clinics. Hinduja Foundation It is an important milestone which began with the philanthropic work of Paramanand Deepchand Hinduja (1901 1971), founder of the Hinduja Group. This legacy is carried forward under the aegis of the Hinduja Foundation which works in tandem with Hinduja Foundations established in the UK and the USA. Together they form an integral part of the Hinduja Group and strive to achieve their goals by creating socially responsible institutions; working jointly with other institutions of repute and by supporting deserving NGOs working for similar objectives. Drawing inspiration from the founder, the Hinduja Foundation believes that philanthropy, a sacred social responsibility of all enterprise, is worthier when it encourages self help and sets an example for the younger generations. Srichand P. Hinduja, Chairman of the Hinduja Group, leads the Foundation. Our aim, he says, is to build bridges between India and the world, between the past and the present, between generations that are and generations to come. The Foundations core objectives are: Healthcare Education Arts, Culture and Interfaith Understanding Social Welfare Sports CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY INTERNATIONAL COMPANIES Coke Coca cola follows corporate social responsibility practices in the following areas Beverage Benefits, Active healthy living, Community, Energy Efficiency and climate Protection, Sustainable Packaging, Live Positively Program, Water Steward Ship. The following are the salient features of their CSR Activities. All these programs are collectively known as the Live Positively Program. Under their Beverage Benefits Program they plan to invest more than $50 million in research by 2015 and aim to have low and no calorie options and smaller portion sizes to be made available in communities where obesity is a significant problem. Their Active Healthy Living Program aims to support the Healthy Weight Commitment Foundation in reducing the total annual calories consumed in the U.S by 1.5 Trillion(by the end of 2015) By the end of 2015, Coke wants to ensure that it does not directly market their beverages to children less than 12 years of age following ethics in marketing. Through their Community Development Initiatives coke aims to form 1,300 to 2,000 new Micro Distribution Centers (MDCs) in Africa and by the end of 2020 empower 5 million businesswomen in their global business system. Cokes Energy Efficiency and Climate protection activities aim to Grow our business but not our system wide carbon emissions from our manufacturing operations through 2015, compared with a 2004 baseline. Through their sustainable packaging initiatives they plan to improve packaging material efficiency per liter of product sold by 7%, compared with a 2008 baseline. Through their water stewardship programs coke plans to return to nature and communities the water they use in their beverage production They also create diverse and healthy workplaces aligned with international human rights principles. Google Google developed a separate technological platform called google.org to use its core competency in the area of Information Technology to build products and advocate for policies that address global challenges. They have the following projects which fall under their CSR and philanthropic activities. Google Crisis Response Project aims at making critical information more accessible during the natural disasters and humanitarian crises. After the massive Earthquake in Japan they used this project to provide emergency information, maps and missing persons resources Googles Earth Engine enables the analysis of raw satellite imagery data and extraction of meaningful information about the worlds forests, such as locations and measurements of deforestation Googles RE Google Flu trends Project use Google search data to estimate flu activity. Google Power Meter Project, a free energy monitoring tool helps in saving energy and money. Using energy information provided by utility smart meters and energy monitoring devices, this software enables you to view ones home energy consumption from anywhere online. Googles Philanthropic efforts in the areas of Engineering Awards and Charitable Giving include supporting universities in their Academic research efforts and giving Google Scholarships which help students especially minorities and women with their Computer science and technology studies. They also gave out a $20 million donation in 2010 to charities from around the globe in order to help organizations who have been stretched thin by increasing requests for help at a time of lower donations. Nokia Nokia aims to lead in sustainability by taking it into account in everything they do. Over a billion people in the world use a Nokia phone, and Nokia employees are excited about the opportunities this provides for improving peoples livelihoods and encouraging them to embrace a more sustainable lifestyle. As a market leader, one of the best ways they can contribute to the global community is to conduct their business in a responsible way. They are committed to drive ethically sound policies and practices that guide us in their work. They have a long track record of taking sustainability into account in all their operations, products and services, but their also look beyond their own operations to use their scale for good. Put simply, sustainability is their way of doing business, and their corporate responsibility agenda is framed around the Nokia values of being very human, engaging everyone, innovation and achieving together. Mobile communications have played a big role in billions of peoples lives. Now that mobile devices are connecting us in many ways beyond calls, Nokia has been leading and encouraging innovation around how to harness this new connectivity to help people solve everyday challenges and connect them to what matters most. New, innovative mobile solutions hold tremendous potential for changing the way the society lives. Their impacts and commitment:- Maximising the benefits of mobile communication and minimising potentially negative effects requires commitment from governments, civil society, and the business sector. As a market leader with global operations they recognise that their potential impact, and therefore their responsibility, is great. From a social growth and economic development perspective, they acknowledge their impact and responsibilities throughout their value chain: in their sourcing, product design, manufacturing, logistics, recycling, communications, employee well-being, business partnerships, community involvement and social investments. Through their solutions they respond to various environmental and societal needs. Their overall response to their stakeholders is to produce high-quality, safe products and valuable services for a consumer offerings that has a positive influence on the society and the planet. Kelloggs Based on their heritage and business, Kelloggs chooses to focus on three major areas: Helping Children and Youth Reach their Potential   Improving Opportunities for Minorities and Women Strengthening Communities In 2005, Kelloggs contributed more than $8 million in cash and $20 million in product to various charitable organizations around the world.   Half of their corporate giving is based on what is important to the employees contributions that are part of Kellogg Care-their matching-grant program, and United Way. The food donations primarily are made through Americas Second Harvest, a nationwide network of food banks and food rescue organizations that feeds hungry children and families across the country.   Kelloggs employees make a difference in their local communities by volunteering and participating in wide-ranging charitable activities. Kellogg Company provides a dollar-for-dollar match of employee gifts to qualified educational, cultural and environmental organizations. Partners  and Partnerships : Kelloggs works with organizations and programs with proven results, improving lives around the country and throughout the world including United Way, Americas Second Harvest, and HOSTS   Learning   Help One Student to Succeed. Wellness and Nutrition: The Kellogg legacy is based on the philosophy that people can improve their health by eating a balanced diet and engaging in regular physical activity.   Living a healthy lifestyle begins with a good understanding of nutrition.   Kelloggs believes in providing high-quality, nutritious food and helping educate consumers about the benefits of a healthy diet. Ethics and compliance: Through their Global Code of Ethics, Kelloggs employees understand that: They are firmly committed to the fair and equitable treatment of all our employees and job applicants. Customers and consumers expect more from Kellogg Company and it is every employees job to make sure Kellogg meets their expectations. Investors count on Kellogg to deliver on its commitments, provide accurate information about its affiliates and to make responsible business decisions based on reliable records. Kellogg believes in doing business with suppliers, contractors, joint venture partners, agents, sales representatives, distributors and consultants who embrace and demonstrate high standards of ethical behavior. They actively seek opportunities to contribute to the communities in which we do business, and to improve the environment that sustains us all. Diversity and Inclusion: At Kellogg Company, Individuals are valued for their diverse backgrounds, experiences, styles, approaches and ideas.They actively promote diversity in work force.  This diversity inspires the innovation that drives business and helps enhance competitive advantage Workplace Health and Safety: Employee safety is a value at Kellogg.  Ã‚  They are committed to providing a safe and healthy work environment and preventing accidents.   Employees are accountable for observing the safety and health rules and practices that apply to their jobs and are expected to take precautions necessary to protect them and their co-workers, including immediately reporting accidents, injuries and unsafe practices or conditions.   Kellogg and the Environment: Promoting and maintaining environmentally responsible practices is beneficial for everyone   our customers, consumers, employees and the communities in which they operate. Kellogg Company conducts business in ways that protect the environment and demonstrate good stewardship of our worlds natural resources.   They work closely and cooperatively with local communities, suppliers and contractors, government agencies, and other organizations engaged in improving the environment.  Their current focus is on energy use.   While a 10% reduction in the energy used to produce the products has been seen since 1997, the goal is to continue this reduction. The Kelloggs environmental audit program includes periodic and complete evaluations of all our manufacturing practices. Almost all Kellogg cereal cartons are made of 100% recycled fiber, with at least 35% post-consumer material. Citigroup The Public Affairs Committee of Citis Board of Directors oversees overall Citizenship priorities and performance. Its businesses, supported by Director of Corporate Citizenship, implement Citizenship policies and commitments through their daily work. Internal teams specializing in topics such as the environment, public policy, diversity, financial education, community relations and human rights support the businesses. Citi Foundation: The Citi Foundation is committed to the economic empowerment of individuals and families, particularly those in need, in the communities where we work so they can improve their standard of living. It provides grant support for programs aligned with the Citi Foundations five strategic funding areas: Microfinance and Microenterprise, Small and Growing Businesses, Financial Capability and Asset Building, College and Careers and Neighborhood Revitalization The key stakeholders include investors, employees, customers, vendors, suppliers, communities, regulators, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and peer institutions in networks such as the Equator Principles and Carbon Principles. It seeks to engage regularly with both individual stakeholders and institutions to share information, listen to stakeholders ideas and concerns and, where possible, refine its policies and practices in response. The Citi Code of Conduct outlines the laws, rules, regulations and Citi policies that govern its activities and sets companywide standards of

Was the Irish Civil War a ?natural? conclusion to the events of previou

Was the Irish Civil War a ‘natural’ conclusion to the events of previous years?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some historians will say that the Civil War was a ‘natural’ conclusion to the activities of the previous year others will disagree. This essay will take the line that yes; the civil war was a natural and inevitable conclusion to the Anglo-Irish difficulties. In order to understand why the Civil War came about one must first understand how it came about by studying the actions of the previous years, the War of Independence and the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Then it is necessary to look at the feelings of the opposing sides of the Civil War. Finally one must look at history itself and compare the Irish War of Independence and the Civil War with similar cases. Once all steps have been taken the ultimate aim of this essay is to prove that the Civil War was a ‘natural’ conclusion to the previous years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The War of Independence (WOI) was fought between the years 1918 and 1921 and ‘was mainly limited to Dublin and the province of Munster, and the IRA victories were few and far between’ . Ireland had forgotten about its aspirations for Home Rule and was now looking for a more drastic form of Independence. The war had its origins in the formation of unilaterally created independent Irish parliament, called Dà ¡il Éireann, formed by the majority of MPs elected in Irish constituencies in the Irish (UK) general election, 1918. This parliament, known as the First Dà ¡il, and its ministry, called the Aireacht declared Irish independence. The Dà ¡il knew that ‘England’s difficulty (was) Ireland’s opportunity’ and ceized the day. After the failed rebelion of 1916 public sympathies slowly but surely swung to the millitant IRA (and Sinn Fein).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1921 the WOI was a cause of British anxiety and embarressment an d something had to be done. Once the Ulster province had been calmed by the Government of Ireland Act in 1920, the Lloyd George turned to its Nationalist neighbour. A Sinn Fein delegation, including Michael Collins and Arthur Grifith was sent to Westminster to negotiate the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It is important to note that President DeValera was not present. It is very possible that he knew there would have to be some comprimise made and he didn’t want to make it. After heated discusions and debates the delegation w... ...jority of cases where there is Revolution there is Civil War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As we see with history, it was almost inevitable that Ireland would experience civil war once she achieved ‘independence’. However, it was not just the history of other countries which dictated this, but also her own. When one person dies they leave behind a hundred mourners. As we can see by the strong words of Mary MacSweeny many of the families of Irish ‘martyrs’ wanted to see their deaths avenged. This was a strong force behind the Civil War and saw it as a ‘natural’ conclusion to previous years. There were also many rifts within the IRA prior to the Treaty and once they had no common enemy they were prone to fight themselves. With all this evidence pointing to the Civil War’s ‘natural’ occurrence it is hard to see how it could not have happened.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bibliography Litton, Helen, The Irish Civil War: An Illustrated History, (Dublin, 1995). Purdon, Edward, The Civil War1922-1023, (Cork, 200). Townshend, Charles, Ireland: The 20th Century, (London, 1998) WEB: http://www.answers.com/topic/irish-civil-war http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence

History of James Town Virginia Essay

James town is regarded as the first permanent English colony in America. It was founded in 1607 in Virginia. Physically, this colony had an upper hand in military benefits since it had a deep mooring which acted as the harbor for ships as well as being far up the James River in a location that was out of sight of the Spanish whom the Britons did not want a confrontation with. The site was also semi arid in nature and the colony was fully protected on all its 3 sides by the marshes and by the James River. Its founding led to a series of encounters in terms of culture and these aided in shaping America as a nation and the world at large (Carbone, 17) . The culture and lifestyles of these early Virginians is what has shaped the heritage of United States in terms of governance, language, beliefs, aspirations and customs. The establishment of James town as a colony was sponsored by a group of investors who called themselves the Virginia Company of London. The main aim of this company was to benefit in terms of monetary gains especially from new outlets and colonies. The company was also established in a way to compete with the French and the Spanish internationally (Haile, 14). This group set out on the basis of a charter granted to the company by King James I. the main reasons why King James sent the ships to sail was to go forth and find gold, find a direct route to the south seas, and /or find the lost Roanoke Colony. Jamestown was therefore the first British colony in North America. The aim of these investors was to benefit in terms of profits from this venture. The first ships to reach the Virginia coast were The Susan Constant, Discovery and Godspeed which arrived there in late April 1606. These ships carried a total of 105 passengers. Captain Christopher Newport led the expedition and after two weeks, they discovered a site along James River that was favorable in terms of its good defensive position and deep water anchorage. The site that these explorers chose was 60 kilometers from the bay of James River. The reason for this was that the expeditors did not want any conflict with the Spaniards who had already settled there (Colonial Life Jamestown 1607, 1998). The passengers disembarked on the day after and started settling. These first colonialists were made of upper class Englishmen. The location of the colony was in the midst of Algonquian-speaking Indians who were governed by a powerful ruler referred to as Powhatan. The main aim of the passengers on board the three small ships was glory and destiny, wealth and discovery. Little did they know that the steps they had taken for their own benefit and their own personal beliefs and dreams that they set out to achieve was the first step in the birth of a nation currently called the United States of America (Smith, 13). Problems faced in the colony. The established of the colony was faced with many problems that included establishment of the colony in a poor location that was insect infected, marshy and which lacked fresh waters. This lack of water led to diseases like Malaria and dysentery which claimed many lives. Other problems in the newly established colonies were the in ability to deal with the native Indians which led to frequent war fares. The first colonialists were lazy and they hated farming and therefore they were unable to feed themselves. The original colonialists were not ready to engage in any form of labor even if it was for their own personal interests of preservation. They were not used to hard manual labor and since they were considered as gentlemen, they preferred lazing around to working in the farm. This led to the death toll in the colony being catastrophic and this led to an unprecedented savagery level (Doherty, 7-8). The area that the original colonialists chose was low lying and swampy and this made it a good spot as a breeding ground for insects and more so mosquitoes. This therefore made the original colonialists to be vulnerable to a variety of diseases. Because of the marshy nature of the Island, it was impossible for the colonialists to obtain fresh water and this made them drink the salty water from the James River or that from the well which was brackish in nature (Bridenbaugh, 47). The colonialists were also unable to maintain or form a peaceful and workable relationship with the Native Indians. This made the relationship between the settlers from Britain and the Powhatans Indians to be strained and violent in the whole of the colonial period (Morgan, 90). The high rate of mortality rates was also a major problem in James town. It is estimated that 3 out of the 4 6000 settlers who settled in James town between 1607 and 1624 died. This increase in mortality rate led to the Colony being referred as â€Å"a hellhole where savage death, illness and death awaited (Doherty, 112). In the early days, the colony also suffered from explosions and fires which were disastrous and the city is reported to have been burnt down twice. Governance of the colony The colony was initially governed by a council of 7 members whereby one member served as the president. Serious relationships in terms of relations with the Indians soon emerged even though there were established trading opportunities. The colony was affected by a rise in disease and death due to lack of water, supply of blackish water and an unfamiliar climate, conditions which were influenced by a prolonged drought. Because the original colonialists of this colony were upper class Englishmen, there was lack of skilled farmers and sufficient labors in the colony. The passengers of these ships were mainly townsmen and adventurers who were more concerned with farming as compared to farming. Therefore they were unequipped in terms of temperament and the ability to embark and adapt in a new life in the wilderness. In September 1609, Captain John Smith took over as the leader of the colony. He was the fourth council president and he is best known for establishing the no work, no food policy. This policy meant that those people who did not participate in the work shall not share in the food as well. He was also very instrumental and influential in trading with the Indians for food. He therefore emerged as a dominant figure and he was able to instill discipline and this was influential in holding the colony together. This he achieved despite constant attacks from the Native Americans, starvation and constant quarrels. Captain Smith was injured in the fall of 1609 by burning gunpowder and this made him leave for England never to return to Virginia again. His departure led to the descent of the colony into anarchy. John Smith is proclaimed to be the only man who was able to maintain peace between the Indians and the settlers. After his departure, the colony was faced with a starving time which was basically a warfare period between the Native Indians and the Colonialists. The Starving Time involved a colony that was hard hit by a winter season that led to the freezing of the river. This led to the death, through disease, of many Britons both men and women. Many of these colonialists succumbed to disease in the winter of 1609-1610 and died. By May 1610, only 20% of the original first colonialists were arrive i. . 60 of the original 300 who were settlers in Virginia (Smith, 58). It was at this time that the colonialists decided to leave James town and therefore abandon it. No sooner had they decided this than other settlers arrived in Virginia in search of wealth. These settlers arrived in 1610 and they carried with them supplies from England. Their arrival was based on a second charter granted by King James I. the provision of this charter was a stronger leadership which was to be implemented by a governor who worked hand in hand with a group of advisors. This charter also provided for a period of military law that could be introduced and this law carried with it a harsh punishment that was implemented on those who did not follow orders or those who refused to obey. It was in 1619 at Jamestown where the first British representative government in America began. The new settlers’ aimed at making profits for the Virginia Company and therefore they involved themselves in various small industries that included wood production, glassmaking and tar, potash and pitch manufacture. However these ventures were not successful (Smith, 58). It was John Rolfe who in 1613 introduced tobacco as a cash crop with an aim of profiting the company. The embracement of tobacco as a cash crop led to the rapid growth and expansion of Virginia colony. This is because its cultivation required large amounts of investment in terms of land labor. This made the settlers to move to the lands formerly occupied by the Native Indians. This also led to more servants coming to Virginia. This was a development that revolutionized the economy of Virginia. What John Rolfe did was to simply cross breed the seed of imported tobacco from West Indies with that of the native plants and this led to the development of a new variety that fitted and was pleasing in taste to the preferences of the Europeans. Even after this development, the prosperity of Virginia colony did not occur immediately. This is because during this period, the rate of death from starvation, diseases and attacks from the native Indians was still very high. On average, around 14000 Britons had migrated to the Virginia colony between the years 1607 and 1924. However by the end of 1924, only about 1,132 Britons were living there (Traugh, 96). Relationship between Jamestown and other colonies. There came a time in the mid 17th century whereby the mother country i. e. England paid little attention to its American colonies. This led to England neglecting some of its colonies in North America. The colonies in North America also suffered from the bitter religious and political contention that existed in the Mother country and Jamestown was not excluded. The bitter rivalries in religion that occurred in Britain affected the overseas colonies Jamestown included (Traugh, 96).

Bangus Production

FISHPOND ENGINEERING 1. INTRODUCTION Fishpond Engineering is the science of planning, designing and constructing ponds including water control structures. Although not entirely new in the Fish Farm industry, it has gained international acceptance and plays an important role for the efficiency of the farm management as well as in attaining higher farm production. Fishpond Engineering takes into consideration most especially the physical structures and economy of construction based on the proper engineering procedure and application. . SITE SELECTION AND EVALUATION OF EXISTING AREAS 2. 1 Water Supply Water supply is the first and most important factor to consider in the suitability of a fishpond site. Usually, water supply comes from a river, a creek or from the sea. It must meet the quality and quantity requirement of the pond system throughout the year. Water quality is affected by the physical, the chemical, and the biological parameters. Such parameters are affected by the 1) by-products and wastes resulting from urbanization, 2) agricultural pollutants such as pesticides and fertilizers, 3) industrial wastes from pulp mills, sugar, oil refineries, and textile plants, 4) radio-active wastes, 5) oil pollution arising navigational activities, uncontrolled spillage, and oil exploration. Some of these parameters are discussed in detail under fishpond management. Poor quality water sometimes causes the fouling of gates, screens or metal pipes. This happens when heavy dredging is being conducted in an area. Heavy dredging increases turbidity and causes the release of organic substances embedded in the soil. Once these organic substances are released, they use up oxygen causing high biological oxygen demand (BOD). Higher BOD causes oxygen depletion which in turn makes the water foul. Similar conditions also occur during floods. Water supply in tide-fed farms must be adequate especially during some months of the year when the height of high water is at minimum. This problem can be solved by proper gate design and by the use of pumps. The rate of volume flow of nearby tidal stream needs also to be considered; measurement is made during the dry stream flow and during floods. The data obtained give the developer the minimum and maximum rates of discharge. These are important requirements in fish farm design. For details, refer to Annex I. 2. 2 Tidal Characteristic and Ground Elevation The suitability of a tide-fed area for a â€Å"bangus† fishpond project depends on the relationship between the tidal characteristic of the area and its ground elevation. The only free source of energy that could be tapped for flooding a brackishwater coastal pond is tidal energy which is available once or twice a day depending on geographical location. Five reference stations in the Philippines exhibit five peculiarly different patterns during some months of the year. Figure 1 shows in a graphical form the relationship of natural ground elevation to tidal characteristic. Tables 1 and 2 show such relationships as they are applicable to the six stations of reference. [pic] Figure 1 – Suitability of Proposed Fishpond Site Based on Tidal Characteristic and Ground Elevation. |LOCALITY |Elevations in Meters Above Mean Lower Low H20 | | |Mean High Water (MHW) |Mean Sea Level (MSL) |Mean Low Water (MLW) | |Pier 13, South Harbor, Manila |0. 872 |0. 479 |0. 104 | |Pier 2, Cebu City |1. 50 |0. 722 |0. 183 | |Legaspi Port, Legaspi City |1. 329 |0. 744 |0. 165 | |Sta. Ana Port Davao City |1. 405 |0. 753 |0. 101 | |Port of Poro, San Fernando, La Union |- |0. 372 |- | |Jolo Wharf Jolo, Sulu |0. 631 |0. 38 |0. 034 | Table 1. List of Primary Tide Stations and Datum Planes |   |Highest |Lowest |Absolute |Normal daily fluctuation |R E M A R K S | | |recorded tide |recorded tide|annual range |low/high(range) (m) | | | |(m) |(m) |(m) | | | |PHILIPPINES |1. 4 |(-)0. 21 |1. 25 |(-)0. 03/0. 61(0. 64) |Tidal fluctuation too | |San Fernando, La | | | | |narrow for proper | |Union | | | | |fishpond management | |Manila City |1. 46 |(-)0. 34 |1. 8 |0. 14/1. 05(0. 1) |T idal fluctuation | | | | | | |slightly narrow for | | | | | | |proper fishpond | | | | | | |management | |Legaspi City |1. 83 |(-)0. 4 |2. 23 |1. 09/1. 40(1. 9) |Tidal fluctuation | | | | | | |favorable for proper | | | | | | |fishpond management | |Cebu City |1. 98 |(-)0. 4 |2. 38 |(-)0. 03/1. 49(1. 52) |-do- | |Davao City |1. 98 |(-)0. 49 |2. 47 |(-)0. 03/1. 77(1. 80) |-do- | |Jolo, Sulu |1. 19 |(-)0. 12 |1. 31 |(-)0. 03/0. 98(1. 1) |Tidal fluctuation | | | | | | |slightly narrow for | | | | | | |proper fishpond | | | | | | |management | Table 2. Suitability of Six Tidal Stations of Reference for Fish Farms Areas reached only by the high spring tides should be ruled out as it is costly to move large quantities of soil during the process of excavation. There is that other problem of where to place the excess materials. While these can be solved by constructing high and wide perimeter dikes, putting up more dikes will create narrow compartments resulting in less area intended for fish production. Low areas on the other hand will require higher and more formidable dikes which may mean that earth will have to be moved long distances. The pond bottom should not be so low that drainage will be a problem. The best elevation for a pond bottom therefore, would at least be 0. 2 meter from the datum plane or at an elevation where you can maintain at least 0. meter depth of water inside a pond during ordinary tides. This index should satisfy the requirements of both fish and natural fish food. 2. 2. 1 Tides The attractive forces of both the moon and the sun on the earth surface which changes according to the position of the two planets bring about the occurrence of tides. Tides recur with great regularity and uniformity, although tidal charac teristic vary in different areas all over the world. The principal variations are in the frequency of fluctuation and in the time and height of high and low waters. When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, greater tidal amplitudes are produced. These are called spring tides. Tides of smaller amplitudes are produced when the sun and the moon form the extremes of a right triangle with the earth at the apex. These are called neap tides. When high and low waters occur twice a day it is called a semi-diurnal tide. When the high and the low occur once a day it is called a diurnal tide. The moon passes through a given meridian at a mean interval of 24 hours and 50 minutes. We call this interval one lunar day. Observations reveal that the mean interval between two successive high (or low) waters is 12 hours and 25 minutes. Thus, if there is a high water at 11:00 A. M. today, the next high water will take place 12 hours and 25 minutes later, i. e. , 11:25 P. M. and the next will be at 11:50 A. M. of the following day. Each day the time of tide changes an average of 50 minutes. The difference in the sea water level between successive high and low waters is called the range. Generally, the range becomes maximum during the new and full moon and minimum during the first and last quarter of the moon. The difference in the height between the mean higher high and the mean lower low waters is called the diurnal range. The difference in the tide intervals observed in the morning and afternoon is called diurnal inequality. At Jolo, for instance, the inequality is mainly in the high waters while at Cebu and Manila it is in the low waters as well as in the high waters. The average height of all the lower of low waters is the mean lower low (MLLW), or (0. 00) elevations. This is the datum plane of reference for land elevation of fish farms. Prediction of tides for several places throughout the Philippines can be obtained from Tide and Current Tables published annually by the Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey (BCGS). These tables give the time and height of high and low water. The actual tidal fluctuation on the farm however, deviates to some extent from that obtained from the table. The deviation is corrected by observing the time and height of tidal fluctuation at the river adjacent to the farm, and from this, the ratio of the tidal range can be computed. From the corrected data obtained, bench marks scattered in strategic places can be established. These bench marks will serve later on as starting point in determining elevations of a particular area. 2. 2. 2 Tide prediction There are six tide stations in the Philippines, namely: San Fernando, Manila, Legaspi, Cebu, Jolo and Davao stations. Reference stations for other places are listed under the â€Å"Tidal Differences† and â€Å"Constants† of the Tide and Current Tables. The predicted time and height of high and low waters each day for the six tide stations can be read directly from the table. Tide predictions for other places are obtained by applying tidal differences and ratios to the daily predictions. Tidal differences and ratios are also found in the Tide and Current Tables. Let us take for example, the tidal predictions for Iloilo on 23 Sept. 1979. Looking through the tidal differences and constants of the Tide Tables, you will find that reference station for Iloilo is Cebu. The predicted time and height of tides for Cebu obtained from the tide tables on 23 Sept. 1979 are as follows: |High |Low            | |Time |: |Height |Time |: |Height | |0004 |: |1. 3 m |0606 |: |0. 14 m | |1216 |   |1. 52 m |1822 |   |0. 18 m | (The heights are in meters and reckoned from mean lower low water (MLLW); 0000 is midnight and 1200 is noon). Again, from the table on Tidal Differences and Constants, the corrections on the time and height of high and low waters for Iloilo are as follows: |Time |Height of High Water |Height of Low Water | |+ 0 hr. 05 min. |+ 0. 09 |+ 0. 3 | Thus, the corrected time and heights of high and low waters for Iloilo are: |High |Low            | |Tim e |: |Height |Time |: |Height | |0009 |: |1. 52 m |0611 |: |0. 17 m | |1221 |: |1. 61 m |1827 |: |0. 21 m | 2. 2. 3 Height of tide at any given time The height of the tide at any given time of the day may be determined graphically by plotting the tide curve. This can be done if one needs to know the height of the tide at a certain time. The procedure is as follows: On a cross-section paper, plot the high (H) and the low (L) water points between which the given time lines (see Fig. 2). Join H and L by a straight line and divide it into four equal parts. Name the points as Q1, M and Q2 with M as the center point. Locate point P1 vertically above Q1 and P2 vertically below Q2 at a distance equal to one tenth of the range of the tide. Draw a sine curve through points H, P1, M, P2 and L. This curve closely approximates the actual tide curve, and heights for any time may be readily scaled from it. Figure 2 shows the curve on 23 Sept. 1979 for Iloilo. H is 1. 61 m at 12:21 hr and L is 0. 21 m at 18:27 hr. Since the range is 1. 40 m, P1 is located 0. 14 units above Q1 and P2 is located 0. 14 units below Q2. The height of the tide at 14:30 hr is given by point T to be 1. 22 m. [pic] Figure 2. Height of Tide at any Given Time for Iloilo on 23 Sept. 1979. 2. 3 Soil Properties Most of our fishponds are constructed on tidal lands consisting of alluvial soils which are adjacent to rivers or creeks near the coastal shores and estuaries at or near sea level elevation. If you pick up a handful of soil and examine it closely, you will find that it is made up of mineral and organic particles of varying sizes. The mineral particles are the clay, silt, and sand while the organic particles are plant and animal matter at various stages of decomposition. Soils are assigned with textural classes depending on their relative proportion of sand, silt and clay. Each textural class exhibits varying colors which are based on their chemical composition, amount of organic matter and the degree of decomposition. U. S. Department of Agriculture Classification System has classified soil as: |GENERAL TERMS | |Common Names |Texture |Basic Soil Textural Class Names | |1. |Sandy Soils |Coarse |Sandy | | | | |Sandy Loam | |2. Loamy Soils |Moderately Coarse |Sandy Loam | | | | |Fine sandy Loam | | | |Medium |Very fine Sandy Loam | | | |Moderately fine |Loam | | | | |Silty Loam | | | | |Silt | |3. |Clayey Soils |Fine |Sandy Clay |Clay Loam | | | | |Silty Clay |Sandy Clay Loam | | | | |Clay |Silty Clay Loam | Many properties of soil, which are related to its texture, determine how well suited it is for fishpond purposes. A sandy loam, for instance, is more porous than silty loam and the latter will hold more nutrients than the former. Clay or sandy clay may be the best for dike construction but not as good as clay loam or silty clay loam in terms of growing natural food. So, in general, finer textured soils are superior for fishpond purposes because of their good water retention properties. Each soil texture exhibits different workability as soil construction material. Studies conducted show that clayey soil is preferred for diking purposes. Suitability of a soil class as dike material decreases with decreasing percentage of clay present in the mixture (see Table 3). CLASS |RELATIVE CHARACTERISTIC |COMPACTION CHARACTERISTIC |SUITABILITY FOR DIKE | | | | |MATERIAL | | |PERMEABILITY |COMPRESSIBILITY | | | |Clay |impervious |medium |fair to good |excellent | |Sandy clay |impervious |low |good |good | |Loamy |semi-pervious |high |fair to very |fair | | |to | | | | | |impervious |high |poor | | |Silty |se mi-pervious to |medium to |good to very |poor | | |impervious |high |poor | | |Sandy |pervious |negligible |good |poor | |Peaty |- |- |- |very poor | Table 3. Relationship of Soil Classes and Suitability for dike material Sediments are a dominant and observable characteristic in lower areas of brackishwater swamplands. Field observations and laboratory analysis of soil samples taken reveal that the majority have a thick layer of loose organic sediments which make them unsuitable for fishpond development and other infrastructures. Engineering and other technical considerations indicate that areas having this type of soil are rather difficult to develop because it is directly related to future land development problems such as (1) subsidence and related flood hazards, (2) unavailability of stable and indigenous soil materials for diking, and (3) unavailability of land with adequate load bearing capacity for future infrastructures such as buildings for storage and production facilities. Areas dominated by organic and undecomposed sediments are expected to experience considerable subsidence which eventually result to loss in effective elevation of the land after development as a result of drainage or controlled water table. Since elevation of most tidal lands converted to brackishwater fishponds are generally one meter above MLLW, any future loss of elevation due to subsidence shall predispose the area to severe drainage and flooding problems due to blocking effect of seawater during high tides. Organic and undecomposed sediments are not a good foundation for dikes nor for diking material. Fishpond areas dominated by this type of soil will mean that there is an inadequacy of indigenous soil materials for diking or filling of lower areas. In the absence of good soil materials, the site under consideration will require importing of soils from the adjoining areas which will make the system of development a very expensive process, or considerable excavation for diking will cause (1) unnecessary exposure of acid organic layers, (2) difficulty in leveling, (3) high cost of dike maintenance and (4) technical problems on seepage losses which will cause difficulty in maintaining water levels in the pond. 2. 3. 1 Field method for identification of soil texture Sand – Soil has granular appearance. It is free-flowing when in a dry state. A handful of air-dry soil when pressed will fall apart when released. It will form a ball which will crumble when lightly touched. It cannot be ribboned between thumb and finger when moist. Sandy Loam – Essentially a granular soil with sufficient silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent. Sand characteristic predominate. It forms a ball which readily falls apart when lightly touch ed when air-dry. It forms a ball which bears careful handling without breaking. It cannot be ribboned. Loam – A uniform mixture of sand, silt, and clay. Grading of sand fraction is quite uniform from coarse to fine. It is soft and has somewhat gritty feel, yet is fairly smooth and slightly plastic. When squeezed in hand and pressure is released, it will form a ball which can be handled freely without breaking. It cannot be ribboned between thumb and finger when moist. Silty Loam – It contains a moderate amount of finer grades of sand and only a small amount of clay; over half of the particles are silt. When dry, it may appear quite cloddy; it can be readily broken and pulverized to a powder. When air-dry, it forms a ball which can be freely handled. When wet, soil runs together and puddles. It will not ribbon but has a broken appearance; it feels smooth and may be slightly plastic. Silt – It contains over 80% of silt particles with very little fine sand and clay. When dry, it may be cloddy; it is readily pulverized to powder with a soft flour-like feel. When air-dry, it forms a ball which can be handled without breaking. When moist, it forms a cast which can freely be handled. When wet, it readily puddles. It has a tendency to ribbon with a broken appearance; it feels smooth. Clay Loam – Fine texture soils break into lumps when dry. It contains more clay than silt loam. It resembles clay in a dry condition. Identification is made on physical behaviour of moist soil. When air-dry, it forms a ball which can be freely handled without breaking. It can be worked into a dense mass. It forms a thin ribbon which readily breaks. Clay – Fine texture soils break into very hard lumps when dry. It is difficult to pulverize into a soft flour-like powder when dry. Identification is based on cohesive properties of the moist soil. When air-dry, it forms long thin flexible ribbons. It can be worked into a dense compact mass. It has considerable plasticity, and can be moulded. Organic Soil – Identification is based on its high organic content. Much consists of thoroughly decomposed organic materials with considerable amount of mineral soil finely divided with some fibrous remains. When considerable fibrous material is present, it may be classified as peat. Soil color ranges from brown to black. It has high shrinkage upon drying. 2. 4 Studies of Watershed and Flood Hazard 2. 4. 1 Watershed A watershed is a ridge of high land draining into a river, river system or body of water. It is the region facing or sloping towards the lower lands and is the source of run-off water. The bigger the area of the watershed, the greater the volume of run-off water that will drain to the rivers, creeks, swamps, lakes or ocean. Precipitation from a watershed does not totally drain down as run-off water. A portion of the total rainfall moving down the watershed's surface is used by the vegetation and becomes a part of the deep ground water supply or seeps slowly to a stream and to the sea. The factor affecting the run-off may be divided into factors associated with the watershed. Precipitation factors include rainfall duration, intensity and distribution of rainfall in the area. Watershed factors affecting run-off include size and shape of watershed, retention of the watershed, topography and geology of the watershed. The volume of run-off from a watershed may be expressed as the average depth of water that would cover the entire watershed. The depth is usually expressed in centimeters. One day or 24-hours rainfall depth is used for estimating peak discharge rate, thus: Volume of Flood Run-off (Q) [pic]+ S1 Engineering Field Manual For Conservation Practices, 1969, pp 2–5 to 2–6 |where |Q |= |accumulated volume of run-off in centimeters depth over the drainage area | | |P |= |accumulated rainfall in cm depth over the drainage area | | |Ia |= |initial obstruction including surface storage, interception by vegetation and | | | | |infiltration prior to run-off in cm depth over the drainage area | | |s |= |potential maximum retention of water by the soil equivalent in cm depth over the | | | | |drainage area | 2. 4. 2 Flood hazard Floods are common in the Philippines due to overflowing of rivers triggered by typhoons and the southwest monsoon rain prevailing over the islands during the rainy season. Overflow of the rivers is largely attributable to the bad channel characteristic such as steep slopes as well as meandering at the lower reach of the river. The network of the tidal streams in some delta areas has been rendered ineffective in conveying the flood-water to the sea due to fishpond construction. Flooding is common in this country and is considered the most destructive enemy of the fishpond industry. The floods of 1972 and 1974 greatly affected the fishpond industry in Central Luzon causing damage amounting to millions of pesos. Because of the floods, fishponds became idle during the time necessary for operators to make repairs and improvements. Floods cannot be controlled, but what is important is to know how a fishpond can be free to some extent from flood hazard. In order to prevent frequent flooding, it is necessary to know the weather conditions in the area where the fishpond project is located. The highest flood occuring in an area can be determined by proper gathering of information. In big rivers, the Ministry of Public Works (MPW) records the height of flood waters during rainy seasons. However, in areas where the MPW has no record, the best way is by gathering information from the people who have stayed in the area for many years. The size of the creek, river and drainage canal should also be determined to find out whether it can accommodate the run-off water or flood water that drains in the area once the fishpond project is developed. Records of the highest flood in the site, especially during high tide, is very important. It will be the basis in providing allowance for the drainage of flood water coming from the watershed. 2. 5 Climatic Conditions Climate has been described in terms of distribution of rainfall recorded in a locality during the different months of the year. In the Philippines, it is classified into four climatic zones preferably called weather types, namely: |Type I |- |Two pronounced seasons; dry from November to April and wet uring the rest of the year. | |Type II |- |No dry season with very pronounced maximum rainfall from November to January. | |Type III |- |Season not very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April and wet during the | | | |rest of the year. | |Type IV |- |Rainfa ll more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. | The elements that make up the climate of a region are the same as those that make up the weather, the distinction being one mainly of time. But the elements that concern most fishpond operators are the rainfall, temperature and the prevailing wind direction because they greatly affect fish production directly or indirectly. Data on rainfall and wind direction are very necessary in planning the layout and design of pond system. Knowing past rainfall records, you can more or less decide whether it will be necessary to include a drainage canal in the layout, and how large it will be when constructed. Knowing past rainfall records will also be necessary in computing the height of the secondary and tertiary dikes. Wind on the other hand, plays a role in fishpond design. Strong wind generates wave actions that destroy sides of the dike. This causes great expense in the construction and maintenance. However, this problem can be minimized with proper planning and design. For instance, longer pond dimension should be positioned somewhat parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind (see Fig. 3). This will lessen the side length of the dike exposed to wave action. This orientation of pond compartments will also have some advantageous effects in the management aspect. [pic] Figure 3. Layout of Pond Compartments Oriented to the Prevailing Wind Direction Nearly every location is subject to what is called the prevailing wind, or the wind blowing in one direction for a major portion of the year. Monsoons are prevailing winds which are seasonal, blowing from one direction over part of the year and from the opposite direction over the remaining part of the year. Trade winds, which generally come from the east, prevail during the rest of the year when the monsoons are weak. [pic] Figure 4. Wind Directions Wave action in ponds is caused by wind blowing across the surface. One cannot totally control wave action in ponds although it can be minimized. In typhoon belt areas or in areas where a strong wind blows predominantly, it is better to include wind breakers in planning the layout of ponds. 2. 6 Type and Density of Vegetation Mangrove swamps occur in abundance on tidal zones along the coasts of the Philippines which are being converted into fishponds for fish production, but not all mangrove swamps are suitable for fishpond purposes. Some are elevated and are not economically feasible for development; others have too low an elevation to develop. The distribution of mangrove species in tropical estuaries depend primarily on the land elevation, soil types, water salinity and current. It has been observed that â€Å"api-api† and â€Å"pagat-pat† trees (Avicennia) abound in elevated areas while â€Å"bakawan† trees (Rhizophora) are mostly found in low areas. It has also been observed that nipa and high tannin trees have a long-lasting low pH effect on newly constructed ponds. Presence of certain shrubs and ferns indicate the elevation and frequency of tide water overrunning the area. Certain aquatic plants such as water lily, eel grass and chara sp. indicate low water salinities. The type and density of vegetation, the size, wood density and root system of individual trees greatly affect the method of clearing, procedure of farm development and construction cost. Thickly vegetated areas, for instance, will take a long time to clear of stumps. Density of vegetation is classified according to kind, size and quantity per unit area. This is done to determine the cost of land clearing and uprooting of stumps. One method used is by random sampling. The process requires at least five or more samples taken at random, regardless of size, and vegetation is classified according to kind, size and number. Then the findings are tabulated and the average of the samples is determined. However, vegetation of less than 3 cm in diameter is not included. The total vegetation of the area is determined as follows: [pic] |Station |NIPA |BAKAWAN |API-API |LIPATA |BIRIBID | |(20? 20) | | | | | | | |No|Av|No. | | |. |e. | | | | |Si| | | | |ze| | | |b |= |line GD | | |h |= |height or distance | The total area of the irregular figure is equal to the sum of A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5. Example: Find the area of an irregular figure shown in Figure 13 using the triangulation method. Solution: [pic] [pic] b. Trapezoidal Rule [pic] Figure 14. Area Determination Using the Trapezoidal Rule If a field is bounded on one side by a straight line and on the other by a curved boundary, the area may be computed by the use of the trapezoidal rule. Along a straight line AB, Fig. 14, perpendicular offsets are drawn and measured at regular intervals. The area is then computed using the following formula: [pic] Where: |ho, hn |= |length of end offsets | |Sh |= |sum of offsets (except end offsets) | |d |= |distance between offsets | Example: In Fig. 4, if the offsets from a straight line AB to the curved boundary DC are 35, 25, 30, 40, and 10, and are at equal distance of 30, what is the included area between the curved boundary and the straight line? Solution: |Area ABCD |= |[pic] | | |= | | | |= |117. 5 ? 30 | | |= |3,525 sq. m. | 3. 2. 3 Laying out right angles and parallel lin es a. Laying out right angles. For instance it is required to lay out the center line of dike B (see Fig. 15) perpendicular to that of dike A using a tape. A simple corollary on the right triangle states that a triangle whose sides are in proportion of 3, 4, and 5 is a right triangle, the longest side being the hypotenuse. In the figure, point C is the intersection of the two dike centerlines. One man holds the zero end of the tape at C and 30 m is measured towards B. Again from C, measure 40 m distance towards A and then from A' measure a distance of 50 meters towards B'. Line CB' should intersect line A' B'. Therefore, line CB is formed perpendicular to line CA. It is always desirable to check the distances to be sure that no mistake has been made. [pic] Figure 15. Laying Out Right Angles b. Laying out parallel lines. In Figure 16, CD is to be run parallel to AB. From line AB erect perpendicular lines EF and GH in the same manner described in the previous discussion. Measure equal distances of EF and GH from line AB and the line formed through points C' and D' is the required parallel. [pic] Figure 16. Laying Out Parallel Lines 3. 3 Topographic Survey 3. 3. 1 Explanation of common terms a. Bench Mark (BM). A bench mark is a point of known elevation of a permanent nature. A bench mark may be established on wooden stakes set near a construction project or by nails driven on trees or stumps of trees. Nails set on trees should be near the ground line where they will remain on the stump if the tree will be cut and removed. Procedure on setting up a bench mark is attached as Annex 4. It is a good idea to mark the nail with paint and ring the tree above and below also in case a chain saw is used to cut down the tree. The Philippines Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey has established bench marks in nearly all cities and at scattered points. They are generally bronze caps securely set on stones or in concrete with elevations referenced to mean sea level (MSL). The purpose of these bench marks is to provide control points for topographic mapping. b. Turning Point (TP). A turning point is a point where the elevation is determined for the purpose of traverse, but which is no longer needed after necessary readings have been taken. A turning point should be located on a firm object whose elevation will not change during the process of moving the instrument set up. A small stone, fence post, temporary stake driven into the ground is good enough for this purpose. c. Backsight (BS). Backsight is a rod reading taken on a point of known elevation. It is the first reading taken on a bench mark or turning point immediately after the initial or new set-up. d. Foresight (FS). Foresight is a rod reading taken on any point on which an elevation is to be determined. Only one backsight is taken during each set-up; all other rod readings are foresights. e. Height of Instrument (HI). Height of instrument is the elevation of the line of sight above the reference datum plane (MLLW). It is determined by adding the backsight rod reading to the known elevation of the point on which the backsight was taken. 3. 3. 2 Transit-stadia method of topographic survey The following describes the procedure of determining ground elevations using the engineer's level with a horizontal circle and stadia rod. A transit may be substituted for the level if care is exercised in leveling the telescope. It is assumed that a bench mark with known elevation has been established. a. Establish your position from a point of known location on the map. In Figure 17, point B is â€Å"tied† to a point of known location on the map, such as corner monument C of the area. This is done by sighting the instrument at C and noting down the azimuth and distance of line BC. The distance of B from C is determined by the stadia-method discussed under area survey. [pic] Figure 17. Establishing Position from a Point of Known Location on the Map b. Take a rod reading on the nearest bench mark (BM), as shown in Figure 18, previously installed for such purpose. This reading is called the backsight (BS), the rod being on a point of known elevation. The height of the instrument (HI) is then found by adding the elevation of the bench mark (Elev. ) and backsight (BS), thus: H. I. = Elev. + B. S. [pic] Figure 18. Transit-stadia Method of Topographic Survey c. The telescope is sighted to point D, or any other points desired, and take the rod reading. The reading is called the foresight (F. S. ), the rod being on a point of known elevation. Ground elevation of point D is then determined by subtracting the foresight (F. S. ), from the height of the instrument (H. I. ), thus: Elevation = H. I. – F. S. d. Similar procedure is used in determining the ground elevation of several points which are within sight from the instrument at point B. The azimuth and distance of all the points sighted from point B are read and recorded in the sample field notes such as shown in Figure 19. |Sta. |Sta. |B. S. | |Occ. |Obs. | |HAT |= |Highest Astronomical Tide | |GS |= |Elevation of the ground Surface | |MF |= |Maximum Flood level | |FB |= |Allowance for Free Board | |%S |= |Percent Shrinkage and settlement | 1. The design height of a secondary dike is calculated using the following formula: [pic] Where: Hs |= |Height of the secondary dike | |HST |= |Highest Spring Tide | |GS |= |Elevation of the ground Surface | |MR |= |Maximum Rainfall within 24 hours | |FB |= |Allowance for Freeboard | |%S |= |Percent Shrinkage and settlement | 2. The design height of a tertiary dike is calculated using the following formula: [pic] Where: Ht |= |Height of the tertiary dike | |DWL |= |Desired Water Level | |GS |= |Elevation of the ground Surface | |MR |= |Maximum Rainfall within 24 hours | |FB |= |Allowance for Freeboard | |%S |= |Percent Shrinkage and settlement | [pic] Figure 28. Design of Different Dikes 4. 3. 3 Canals. About one to two percent of the total farm area is used in the canal system. The main water supply canal starts from the main gate and usually traverses the central portion of the fishfarm. The canal bed should not be lower than, but rather sloping towards, the floor elevation of the main gate. Generally, the canal bed is given a slope of 1/1500 or one meter difference in elevation for a horizontal distance of 1,500 m. A one meter opening main gate will have a canal bed at least 3. m. wide. This width is enough to supply a 10–15 hectares fishpond system considering that the canal dikes have a ratio of 1:1 slope. Secondary water supply canals are constructed in portions of the farm which cannot be reached by the main canal. It starts from the main canal and traverses the inner portion of the fishpond. It is usually constructed in large fishpond areas and smaller than the main canal. Generally, secondary supply canal has a bed width of 2. 0 m. A tertiary canal is usually constructed to supply water in the nursery and transition ponds. Because of the small size, it is sometimes said to be a part of the nursery pond system. Some fish culturists modify the tertiary canal as a catching pond. This usually happens when the designed tertiary canal is short, Generally, a tertiary canal has a bed width of 1. 0–1. 5 m. A diversion canal, when necessary, is also constructed to protect the farm from being flooded with run-off water coming from the watershed. It must be strategically located so that run-off will empty on an established disposal area, natural outlets or prepared individual outlets. It should have the capacity to carry at least the peak run-off from the contributing watershed for a 10-year frequency storm. The slope of the diversion canal should be in such a way that water flows towards the drainage area. A drainage canal is constructed when there is a need to have a separate canal for draining rearing ponds. This is to improve water management in the pond system. It is usually located at the other side of the pond, parallel to the supply canal. A drainage canal is recommended in intensive culture, especially of shrimps. [pic] Figure 29. Design of Different Canals 5. PROJECT COST AND PROGRAMMING The worst error a prospective fishfarm operator can make is to develop an area without project cost estimates and a programme of development. Development money is wasted, and management of the area may be difficult or impossible. Poor planning is the major cause of project failure and even leads to personal bankruptcy. It is very necessary that preparation of the project cost estimates as well as programme of development be done before any construction is started. It is important to know approximately how much will be spent to finish the whole project. It is better that one knows how and when the project will be constructed and completed. The importance of the project cost estimates and programme of development should not be underestimated. 5. 1 Project Cost EStimates The cost of development can be estimated based on the 1) data gathered in the area, 2) proposed layout plan, and 3) design and specification of the physical structures and other facilities. 5. 1. 1 Pre-development estimates a. For the preparation of Feasibility Study. Whether the fishpond operator will apply for a loan in the Bank or he will use his own money to finance the development of a fishpond project, a feasibility study of the area is needed. The feasibility study will be his guide in the development and management of the project. All activities such as the development, management and economic aspects are embodied in the feasibility study. It is a specialized work by engineers, aquaculturist and an economist having special knowledge in fishfarming industry. Usually, for the preparation of the feasibility study, the group charges about 2% to 10% of the total estimated cost of development. b. For the Survey of the Area. An area survey includes a topographic survey, and re-location survey. Whether the area is owned by a private individual or by the government, an area survey by a licensed Geodetic Engineer is very important for the proper location and boundary of the land. It is one of the requirements in the application for a 25-year Fishpond Lease Agreement in the BFAR and also in the application for a loan in the Bank. It must be duly approved by the Bureau of Lands. A topographic survey is necessary in the planning and development of the project. A re-location survey must be conducted to check the validity of the approved plan as well as to avoid conflict in the future. An area and topographic survey done by a Geodetic Engineer will cost about [pic]400. 00 for the first hectare or a fraction thereof and [pic]50. 00 per hectare for the succeeding hectarages. Re-location survey is cheaper than the area and topographic survey. c. For the Construction of a Temporary Shelter. Experienced fishpond laborers generally do not live in the locality. To be more effective they need to have a place to stay during the construction activities. For the construction of a shelter house made of light material, assume a cost of [pic]300. 00/sq. m. of shelter. This includes materials and labor costs. d. For the Construction of Transport Facilities. Flatboats will be needed in the transport of mudblocks. A banca may be used in going to the site. Cost of construction varies from locality to locality. A flatboat with dimensions of 8†² ? 4†² ? 14†³ will cost around [pic]500. 00. A small banca will cost around [pic]600. 00. e. For Representation and Transportation Expenses. This item is not included in the cost of development of a fishpond project. However, it appears that a big amount is being incurred in representation and transportation expenses before the project is started. Example of expenditures are follow-ups of survey plan of the area, FLA application and bank loan. Other expenses are incurred in canvassing of supplies and materials, survey of manpower requirement and equipment needed in the development of a project. Representation and transportation expenses cover about 10–20 percent of pre-development cost. 5. 1. 2 Development Proper. a. For the Clearing of the Whole Area. Clearing the area of vegetation can be divided into three categories, namely: 1) cutting and chopping, 2) Falling and burning, and 3) uprooting and removal of stumps and logs. Generally, cutting and chopping costs about [pic]500. 00 per hectare; piling and burning costs about [pic]300. 00 per hectare; and for the uprooting of stumps and removal of logs, costs depend on their size and number per unit area. A hectare pond, for instance, having 200 stumps of size below 15 cm. in diameter will cost about [pic]800. 00. Stumps numbering 50 pieces with diameter over than 15 cm. will cost about [pic]1,000. 00 per hectare. Cost for the clearing depends upon the prevailing price in the locality. b. For the Construction and Installation of Gates. Cost of construction and installation of a gate can be calculated based on its design and specification proposed in the area. The two kinds of gate commonly constructed in fishponds ( concrete and wood) will be discussed separately. 1. Estimating the cost of construction and installation of a concrete gate: a. Based on the plan of a concrete gate, determine the area and volume of the walls, wings, floor, bridges, toes, aprons and cut walls and compute for the total volume using the following formula: A = L ? W V = A ? t VT = V = V1 + V2 + V3 + †¦ Where: A |= |Area |L |= |Length | |V |= |Volume |W |= |Width | |VT |= |Total volume |t |= |thickness | Determine the number of bags of cement, and the volume of gravel and sand by multiplying the total volume with the factors precomputed for a Class A mixture plus 10% allowance for wastage, thus: |No. of bag cemen t |= |(VT ? 7. 85) + 10% | |Volume of Gravel |= |(VT ? 0. 88) + 10% | |Volume of Sand |= |(VT ? 0. 44) + 10% | Class A mixture has a proportion of 1:2:4, that is one part of cement for every two parts of fine aggregate (sand) and four parts of coarse aggregate (gravel). b. Every square meter of a concrete gate uses 6. 0 m. long of reinforcement bar placed at an interval of 0. 25 m. both ways on center. This is equivalent to 1 ? bars at a standard length of 20 feet per bar. The floor and toes use the same size of bar, thus: No. of reinforcement bar = (Af + 4t) ? 1. 5 Where: Af = Area of the floor At = Area of the toes The walls, wings, etc. use two different sizes of reinforcement bar, thus: [pic] Where: Aw = Area of the walls Ax = Area of the wings An = other areas c. Find the total area of a concrete gate by adding all the areas mentioned in (a). Calculate the weight of tie wire no. 6 by multiplying the total area with a standard value per sq. m. of concrete, thus: Weight (kg) = AT ? 0. 3 Kg/sq. m. d. Calculate the volume of boulders needed by multiplying the area of the flooring with the th ickness of fill. e. Form lumber can be calculated by multiplying the area of walls, wings and bridges by 2. Plywood can also be used as form. Since lumber measurement is still in feet it should be converted into meter, (see conversion table). Use 2†³ ? 3†³ wood for form support. f. Bamboo puno could be calculated from the area of the flooring. A square meter of flooring will require more or less 20 puno staked at an interval of 0. 5 m. both ways on center. This, however, depends upon the hardness of the floor foundation. g. Screens and slabs are calculated based on the design of the concrete gate. h. Assorted nails are calculated based on the thickness of the form lumber used. i. Labor cost is 35–40% of total material cost. However, close estimates can be computed by determining the cost of labor for the construction and removal of temporary earth dike, excavation of the foundation, staking of bamboo puno, placing of boulders and gravel, construction of forms, concr eting of the gate and others. 2. Estimating the cost of construction and installation of a wooden gate. a. Based on the plan of a wooden gate, determine the size and number of lumber for the sidings and flooring. Compute for the total board feet using the following formula: [pic] Where: |L |= |Length of lumber in inches | |W |= |Width of lumber in inches | |t |= |thickness of lumber in inches | b. Based on the design and specification of the pillars and braces, compute for the total board feet using again the above formula. c. Determine the size and number of lumber needed for slabs and screen frames and compute the total board feet. d. Calculate the assorted nails (bronze) based on the lumber used. e. Calculate the coal tar requirement in gallons. f. Calculate the cost of nylon and bamboo screens. g. Calculate the labor cost at 30–40% of the material cost or calculate in detail according to the labor requirement. Calculation includes the construction, painting and installation of the wooden gate and excavation of the floor foundation. c. For the Construction of the Proposed Dikes. Dikes constructed in fishponds vary in sizes. Bigger dikes are, of course, more costly to construct than smaller dikes. In other words, the perimeter or main dike will expend more than the secondary or tertiary dikes. The cost of construction is calculated based on the volume of soil filled and generally it costs [pic]6. 00 per cubic meter. Labor cost, however, depends on the prevailing price in the locality. Transport distance of soil material to the dike is also considered in calculating the cost of construction. Long transport distance decreases individual output per day and thus will increase construction cost. Working eight hours a day, one skilled worker can finish diking, using one flat boat, based on the following distances: |10 – 100 meter distance |6 – 7 cu. m. /day | |101 – 300 meter distance |5 – 6 cu. m. day | |301 – 500 meter distance |4 – 5 cu. m. /day | d. For the Excavation and Leveling of Ponds. Cost for excavation depends upon the volume of soil left inside the pond after the dikes have been constructed. Considering that some soils have been excavated for diking purposes, only about 60% is left for excavation. Generally, escavation co sts about [pic]2. 00 per cu. m. depending upon the prevailing labor cost in the locality. After excavation, leveling of the pond bottoms follows. This involves the cut-and-fill method (excavation and dumping to low portions). Generally, leveling costs about [pic]2,000. 00 per hectare. e. For the Construction of Facilities. Facilities include the caretaker's house, working shed, bodega, chilling tanks, etc. For proper estimates there should be a simple plan of the facilities. However, rough estimates can be made based on the floor area of a house to be constructed. For a house made of light materials, assume a cost of [pic]400. 00 per sq. m. floor area; and for concrete structures, assume [pic]1,000. 00 per sq. m. All assumed costs include materials and labor based on 1979 price of materials. f. For the Purchase of Equipment. A fishpond project cannot be operated without equipment. Examples are fish nets, digging blades, shovels, scoop nets, bolos, etc. These items should be included as part of the total development cost. Such equipment should be listed and calculated. g. Contingencies. There should be a contingency fund for unforeseen expenditures, increase of prices and other materials not included in the above calculations. Assume 10% of the above costs for contingencies. 5. 1. 3 Cost estimate For the purpose of determining the cost of developing a new brackishwater fishfarm project, a typical example of a 50-hectare fishpond project applied to the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources for a 25-year Fishpond Lease Agreement is presented below. |I. Pre-Development |   | | |1. |For the preparation of feasibility study |[pic]1,000. 00 | | |2. |Re-location of boundaries |2,000. 00 | | |3. |For the construction of temporary shelter for laborers (light materials) |4,000. 00 | | |4. |For the construction of flatboats, 5 units at [pic]500. 00/unit |2,500. 00 | | |5. |For the purchase of small banca, 1 unit at [pic]600. 00 |600. 00 | | |6. For representation and transportation expenses |3,000. 00 | | |Sub-total |[pic]13,100. 00 | |II. |Development Proper |   | | |1. |Clearing of the area at [pic]600. 00/ha. (cutting, chopping, burning & removal of logs |[pic]30,000. 00 | | |2. |Construction of dikes (filling, compacting and shaping by manual labor) |   | | | |a. |Main dike along bay and river 1,920 linear meters, 6. 0 m base, 2. 0 m crown and 2. 25 m|103,680. 00 | | | | |height or a total of 17,280 cum. at [pic]6. 00/cu. | | | | |b. |Main dike along upland, 840 linear meters, 5. 5 m base, 2. 0 m crown, and 2. 0 m height |37,800. 00 | | | | |or a total of 6,300 cu. m at [pic]6. 00/cu. m | | | | |c. |Main canal dike, 980 linear meters, 5. 0 m base, 2. 0 m crown, and 1. 8 m height, or a |33,957. 00 | | | | |total of 6,174 cu. m. at [pic]5. 50/cu. m | | | | |d. |Secondary dike, 2,540 linear meters, 4. 0 m base, 1. 0 m crown & 1. 5 m heig ht or a |52,387. 50 | | | | |total of 9,525 cu. at [pic]5. 50 per cu. m | | | | |e. |Secondary canal dike, 400 linear meters, 4. 0 m base, 1. 5 m crown and 1. 4 m height, or|8,470. 00 | | | | |a total of 1,540 cu. m at [pic]5. 50 per cu. m | | | | |f. |Tertiary canal dike, 240 linear meters, 3. 5 m base, 1. 5 m crown and 1. 2 m height or a|3,600. 00 | | | | |total of 720 cu. m at [pic]5. 00 per cu. m | | | | |g. |Tertiary dike, 700 linear meters, 3. 0 m base, 1. 0 m crown and 1. m height or a total|7,000. 00 | | | | |of 1,400 cu. m at [pic]5. 00 per cu. m | | | |3. |Construction and installation of gates |   | | | |a. |Main double opening concrete gate, 2 units at [pic]20,000/unit including labor cost |40,000. 00 | | | |b. |Construction and installation of 10 units secondary wooden gates at [pic]3,000. 00 per|30,000. 00 | | | | |unit | | | | |c. Construction and installation of 15 units tertiary wooden gates at [pic]1,500/unit |22,500. 00 | | |4. |Excavation and levelling of pond bottoms (cut-and-fill) |   | | | |a. |Nursery Pond, 1. 5 ha at [pic]2,000/hectare |3,000. 00 | | | |b. |Transition Pond, 4. 0 ha at [pic]2,000/ha |8,000. 00 | | | |c. |Formation Pond, 8. 0 ha at [pic]2,000/ha |16,000. 00 | | | |d. |Rearing Pond, 32. 0 ha at [pic]2,000/ha |64,000. 00 | | |5. Uprooting and removal of stumps at [pic]600/ha |30,000. 00 | | |6. |For the construction of facilities |   | | | |a. |Caretaker's Hut made of light materials, 2 units at [pic]6,000/unit |12,000. 00 | | | |b. |Bodega, made of light materials for inputs and equipment, 1 unit |5,000. 00 | | | |c. |Chilling tank with shed, made of light materials |3,000. 00 | | |7. |For the purchase of equipment |   | | | |a. Nets for harvesting |3,000. 00 | | | |b. |Digging blades and carpentry tools |1,000. 00 | | | |c. |Containers |2,000. 00 | | |8. |Contingencies (10% of cost) |52,350. 05 | | |Sub-total |[pic]562,750. 55 | | |T O T A L |[pic]575,850. 55 | ESTIMATED COST FOR ONE UNIT DOUBLE OPENING MAIN CONCRETE GATE |I. Cost of Materials | | |   | |Quantity |Unit Price |Amount | | |1. |Cement |140 bags |[pic]24. 00/bag |[pic]3,360. 00 | | |2. |Sand |10 cu. m. |60. 00/cu. m |600. 00 | | |3. |Gravel |20 cu. m |80. 00/cu. m |1,600. 00 | | |4. |Boulders |8 cu. m |50. 00/cu. m |400. 00 | | |5. Reinforcement Bar | | | |a) ? ? ? 20†² |80 pcs |22. 00/pc |1,760. 00 | | | |b) ? 3/8 ? 20†² |35 pcs |12. 00/pc |420. 00 | | |6. |Plywood form |49 pcs |48. 00/pc |2,352. 00 | | | |(? ? 4†² ? 8†³) | | | | | |7. |Lumber (S4S) | | | |a) 2†³ ? 2†³ ? 12†² |30 pcs |3. 0/bd. ft |360. 00 | | | |b) 2†³ ? 3†³ ? 12†² |16 pcs |3. 00/bd. ft |288. 00 | | | |c) 1†³ ? 2†³ ? 12†² |10 pcs |3. 00/bd. ft |60. 00 | | | |d) 1†³ ? 12†³ ? 12†² |6 pcs |3. 00/bd. ft |216. 00 | | |8. |Assorted Nails |10 kgs |7. 50/kg |75. 00 | | |9. |G. I. Wire #16 |20 kgs |8. 00/kg |160. 00 | | |10. Bamboo Puno |400 pcs |4. 00/pc |1,600. 00 | | |Sub-tot al |[pic]13,251. 00 | |II. |Labor (40% of material cost) |5,300. 00 | |III. |Contingencies (10% of material cost) |1,325. 00 | | |T O T A L |[pic]19,876. 00 | | |say |[pic]20,000. 00 | ESTIMATED COST FOR ONE UNIT SECONDARY WOODEN GATE |I. Cost of Materials | | |   |   |Description |Quantity |Unit Price |Amount | | |1. |Ply Board |1†³? 10†³? 14†² |34 pcs. |[pic]3. 00/bd. ft|[pic]1,190. 00| | | | | | |. | | | | | |1†³? 10†³? 8†² |3 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |60. 00 | | |2. |Slabs |1†³? 12†³? 14†² |2 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |84. 00 | | |3. |Pillars and   Braces |2†³? 3†³? 10†² |4 pcs. 3. 00/bd. ft. |60. 00 | | | | |2†³? 3†³? 8†² |7 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |84. 00 | | | | |2†³? 3†³? 14†² |2 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |42. 00 | | | | |3†³? 4†³? 10†² |12 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |360. 00 | | |4. |Screen Frames |2†³? 3†³? 16†² |2 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |48. 00